Winter is Coming

The scarves and gloves are coming out, the days are getting colder, and the nights are getting longer.  It can only mean one thing! Winter is coming, and it's that time of the year where all the shops start trying to sell us fruit pudding, gaudy knitted sweaters and gift-sets of soap, and every café is playing Christmas songs three weeks too early for my liking. If  hear 'Rudolph the Red-nosed Reindeer' one more time, I might have to scream.

A European Robin, Erithacus rubecula, with it's feathers puffed up for warmth - image by Jean-Daniel Echenard on Flickr.

The only thing I don't mind seeing everywhere (other than cheap chocolates) are the cute little animals that are usually associated with Christmas here in Europe; Deer, Polar Bears and the proud little Robin. The European Robin (Erithacus rubecula), that is; I discovered whilst writing this that the American Robin (Turdus migratorus) is very different in appearance. There are even Australian Robins, with all the species belonging to the genus Petroica.

The American Robin, Turdis migratorus - image by
 KellyColgan Azar on Flickr.

Though the Robin seems to have been tied to the festive season, it's actually a bird you can see all year round in the UK. My parents often have one hopping around below the bushes in the back garden, and during a hike along Dorset's 'Jurassic Coast' in late September, I saw between 6 and 10 single Robins in a 1-hour stretch. We stopped counting after Robin number 5, to be honest...


Robins are cool little guys, though. Like many migratory birds, Robins have an inbuilt magnetic compass in both of their eyes (Hein et al, 2011)(Deutschlander & Muheim, 2010), though not all of the UK's Robins are migratory. Both males and females of the species are also aggressively territorial birds (RSPB, 2011). And some good news, for once! The population levels of Robins are doing well; since 1970, the Robin population has increased by 45% (RSPB, 2011).

The Flame Robin, Petroica phoenica, one of the many
species of Australian Robin - image by Leo on Flickr.

But this isn't to say they've escaped the effects of urbanisation. Anthropogenic noise pollution has been found to alter the singing behaviour of male Robins and causes them to move away from areas with high levels of noise (McLaughlin & Kunc, 2013), or to sing at night (Fuller et al, 2007); an argument to stop playing all those Christmas tunes? Light pollution in urbanised areas has also been show to alter the behaviour of European Robins, causing them to begin singing earlier before sunrise (Kempenaers et al, 2010) (Hasan, 2010).

All that aside; why are the little Robins associated with Christmas?

There are a few theories bouncing around in the internet, but the most common theory is that the association originated in the early to mid 1800s, when postmen were known as 'redbreasts' due to the scarlet uniforms they wore. With more postmen seen around Christmas time, the European Robin Redbreast apparently began appearing upon cards and postage stamps goods as a representation of the postmen (FoHBCP) (YPTE) (Wikipedia, 2013).

Agricultural Expansion and Habitat Loss

Since 1700, there has been a six-fold increase in the global extent of agricultural land (Birdlife - Agriculture, 2008). In 1700, only 6% of global land area was being used for agriculture yet in 2011, this figure sat at 37.6% (WorldBank, 2013). The area of land used for agriculture is predicted to rise further as global population increases and with it the demand for commodities such as coffee, soy bean, palm oil and sugar-cane (BirdLife - Crop Expansion, 2013). The expansion of agriculture most often involves the transformation of natural habitats and a loss of biodiversity. In 2008, agriculture contributed to the declines of 87% of threatened bird species on the IUCN Red List.

The pressures of agricultural expansion are felt globally, but let us look at Brazil in more detail. Brazil is home to not only a large portion of the Amazon rainforest, but it is also home to the "forgotten" Cerrado; the worlds most wildlife rich savannah, which covers 21% of the country (WWF - Cerrado). The Cerrado once covered 2 million km², but has since been reduced to 43% of its former size and is being lost at a rate of 1% per year (Birdlife - Cerrado, 2008); if the rate of destruction continues, then the Cerrado is projected to be lost completely by 2030 (Mongabay, 2010).

The Cerrado; the  Brazilian savannah in the height of the summer dry season, which lasts approximately from May to September - image by Christoph Diewald on Flickr.

The Cerrado is extremely important for wildlife (WWF - Cerrado), and is home to over 10,000 species of plant and more than 1600 species of animal; including 935 species of bird. Amongst these animals is the incredibly gorgeous and fluffy Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus - Near Threatened), Kaempfer's Woodpecker (Celeus obrieni - Endangered) and the Cone-billed Tanager (Conothraupis mesoleuca - Critically Endangered). New species are still being discovered, with one bird species among the 13 new species found in 2008 (Mongabay, 2010).

The majority of the loss of the Cerrado is due to highly mechanised soya farms (most of much is used for animal feed), but land is also cleared for cattle ranches and other farms. Models have shown that in areas converted into planted pastures, precipitation may be reduced by up to 10% and surface air temperature may increase by 0.5*C (Klink & Machado, 2005). Were all endemic bird species in the Cerrado to go extinct, then Batalha et. al. (2010) predict functional diversity (Tilman, 2001) to decrease by 27%.

Only 7.5% of remaining Cerrado is currently under protection, yet an estimated 20% of threatened animal and plant species live outside of the protected areas (Klink & Machado, 2005). That said, the future of the Cerrado need not be grim. State governments are focusing on creating new protected areas, extending existing protected areas and establishing ecological corridors. There are also NGOs promoting alternative economic activities to support the livelihoods of local communities, such as ecotourism, the sustainable use of fauna and flora products, and the use of plants for medicinal purposes (Klink & Machado, 2005). Sustainable farming may also help to slow down, and possibly eventually reverse, the decline in biodiversity in Brazil.

A male Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) by Kelly Colgan Azar on Flickr.

To finish, I will leave you with an example of successful sustainable farming; the story of "bird friendly" Bob-o-Link Coffee. The brand is named after a migratory American blackbird, the Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), whose species had experienced a 75% decline (Science for Brazil, 2013) in the last decade due to habitat lost to make way for sugar-cane plantations in the Cerrado. 

One of the reforested Bobolink Coffee plantations;
growing the coffee beans in the shade is said to improve
their taste and quality. 

Bob-o-Link Coffee have restored much of the forest on their 700 acre organic farm, through the planting of trees so that they can grow their coffee beans in the shade. Alongside producing higher quality coffee, this reforestation has restored habitats for the Bobolink and several other animal species (Science for Brazil, 2013). 

Bob-o-link coffee also encourages its farmers to keep beehives on their farms; this not only helps with pollination of the coffee plants, but if more farmers turned to bee-keeping then it might help slow the decline of bee populations in many countries (Bob-o-Link Coffee). 

Climate Change 2. - Biological Invasions Seminar Summary

First off, I'm going to apologise for the crazy amount of posts this week. I just wanted to post this whilst everything was still fresh in my mind. Secondly, this isn't 100% related to birds, as you'll see, but I thought it might interest those studying Geog3057.

On Wednesday I attended a small seminar given at UCL by Franck Courchamp, a specialist in population dynamics and conservation biology from Université Paris Sud. The talk was on 'Interactions between Climate Change and Biological Invasions' and here I'm giving a quick summary of what was said.

Myrmica rubra; the European Fire Ant (aka. Common Red Ant) - by Tim Keppens on Flickr.

Biological invasions are the second greatest threat to biodiversity; they also impact upon the economy and society. Will climate change effect biological invasions? Will it make them more, or less, of an issue in the future?

Courchamp's research can be roughly divided into two sections; the effect that climate change will have on invasive ant species, and the effect it will have upon the IUCN's 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species.

Climate Change and Invasive Ant Species

• Over 200 of the ~1200 described species of ant (family; Formidae) are found outside of their native range. Some of these species can be classed as 'exotic' (i.e. not native, but not invasive). 19 of these species, however, are classed as highly invasive; 5 of them are present of the '100 of the World's Worst-' list.
• Ant invasions have important consequences for biodiversity; they may remove native species and other arthropods. They also effect mammals, birds, and other animals, and can impact seed dispersal and pollination by doing so. They also affect us; Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) causes a total economic loss of around $1 billion per year, as well as roughly 100 deaths from anaphylaxis (severe allergic reaction).

Using climatic models, will invasive ant species increase their range and 'invasive-ness'?

• Some ants (5 species) will benefit from climate change, and will become more able to invade new regions. Amongst these are the Asian Needle Ant (Pachycondyla chinensis), Singapore Ant (Monomorium destructor) and European Fire Ant (Myrmica rubra).
• HOWEVER, many species are projected to freeze or decrease in their invasiveness (7 decreases and 3 remain 'stable'). 3 of the decreasing species are amongst the 'World's Worst'. 
• So, overall, the general global trend seems to be that future climate change will decrease the invasiveness of ants. 
• But don't start the party just yet! When we look at and compare the regions that these invasions are decreasing and increasing in, we get a more grim picture. Though the global trend in the future is to decrease, two-thirds of species show a strong increase in the world's Biodiversity Hotspots which, though they only cover 2.3% of the Earth's land area, contain high numbers of endemic species. 

Climate Change and the 100 of the World's Worst...
Having looked at invasive ants, Courchamp and his PhD students repeated the models, but this time did so for all of the '100 of the World's Worst-'. Would the results be worse, or better?

•  Aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, as well as terrestrial plants, amongst others, showed an increase in their invasive range. Europe and South America in particular showed a greater risk of being invaded with future climate change.
• Amphibians and birds, amongst others, showed a decrease in their invasive range with climate change. As with the ants, their was a general global decrease in invasiveness. 
• However, as it had been with ants, the picture was different when Biodiversity Hotpsots were focused upon. With climate change, these hotspots were more likely to be invaded in hue he future, and some are more susceptible than others. Polynesia, for example, is at risk from 35 of the 'World's Worst'. 

In the words of Franck Courchamp, the overall pattern is "a lot of invasions everywhere". Even though some species show a decrease in their distribution, as most are predicated to increase their distribution in the places that are most at risk we can be fairly confident in saying that climate change will not suppress biological invasions. 

Journals referenced in the talk:

• Increase in Quantity and Quality of Suitable Areas for Invasive Species
• Impacts of Climate Change on the Future of Biodiversity
• Will Climate Change Promote Future Invasions?

Happy Halloween!

Thriller playing in the background would be suitable considering the holiday, but oh well! The Mannequin bird never fails to make me smile. This guy has to be one of the grooviest little animals out there.

I was thinking it'd be cool being a bird on Halloween; no teeth = no cavities from so much sugar. Then I remembered this from Series B of QI and decided it probably wouldn't be such a great idea after-all...

"Birds do not like chocolate. It is poisonous, and birds have only 20-30 taste buds, so they could not taste it anyway. A Smartie would kill a small songbird. Chocolate is also poisonous to humans, but the lethal dose is very high (22 pounds). Humans have 9-10,000 taste buds, but new ones grow every five days." (QI - Series B, Episode 2)

Sucks to be a bird then, I guess. Though most of them do have the awesome ability to fly, so I guess it's not all bad, right?

Fun Feathery Facts:
1. The earliest known bird is thought to be the fossil specimen, Aurornis xui.
2. Feathers didn't originate in birds; it is now believed that proto-feathers originated in dinosaurs, and were probably present in Velociraptors... Jurassic Park probably wouldn't have been as terrifying as if they'd known that back-in-the-days.
3. Some birds, such as the Hooded Pitohuis (Pitohui dichrous), are known to be toxic to touch or eat; they produce these toxins from food in their diet.

Toxic and appropriately coloured for this frightful day; the Hooded Pitohuis (Pitohui dichrous). He'd look really cool perched a-top some pumpkins (I wouldn't eat them afterwards, minds) - image from Top5's

4. All birds lay eggs; no living bird species is known to give birth to live young.
5. There is some debate over which bird has made the longest recorded flight, depending upon whether you go by days spent airborne or distance covered. This year, three Alpine Swifts are reported to have spent a non-stop total of 200 days airborne, whilst a female Godwit in 2007 reportedly flew non-stop from Alaska to New Zealand, a journey of 7145 miles (11,500km).
6. The Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) has the fastest dive speed of any bird at a speed of around 200 mph (320 km/h). In 2005, one particular falcon was recorded diving at a top speed of 242 mph (389 km/h).
7. Owls are excellent hunters and can fly more slowly than other birds, and do so almost silently thanks to noise muffling feathers in their wings. Their eyes are large relative to their small skull, but cannot be moved in any direction. Instead, owls can rotate their head 270° to look around.
8. The Potoo (Nyctibius spp.) is another nocturnal bird which relies heavily on their fantastic camouflage. In the day, they sit on tree stumps to avoid detection. They're also pretty comical looking, don't you think? 

"But I don't wanna go to school!" - image from fanpop.

9. The smallest known bird, the Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae), also produces the smallest eggs of any bird species. The eggs are no bigger than peas, and are lay in a tiny cup-shaped 1 inch (2.5 cm) nest. 
10. Whilst most nocturnal birds have evolved brilliant eyesight, the Kiwi might as well be blind. What it lacks in sight, however, it makes up for in it's ability to smell. Whilst most birds have little or no sense of smell, the kiwi bird's is highly developed. 

Taken from imgur.

Critically Endangered - The Philippine Cockatoo

I stumbled across an interesting article by BusinessMirror (2013) on the Red-Vented Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia)  (IUCN, 2012) during a coach-trip back from visiting friends. Sometimes called the Philippine Cockatoo or Katala, this clever bird is one of the few bird species capable of mimicking human speech. Sadly, the population of these beautiful birds has plummeted rapidly (a decline of 60-90%) (Katala Foundation, 2013) in the last two decades due to anthropogenic activities.

The Red-vented cockatoo is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Redlist with an estimate of roughly 1000 remaining in the wild, and with the remaining populations fragmented and dispersed across the Philippine islands  (IUCN, 2012). 

The Red-vented Cockatoo, by Edmond Sham on Flickr

Destruction of their natural coastal habitat poses one threat; deforestation and destruction of mangroves has been particularly extensive throughout their range, leaving the remaining populations vulnerable to typhoons (IUCN, 2012). The cockatoos are also persecuted for being agricultural pests, and are sometimes hunted for food (Birdlife, 2013).

Illegal trade of the birds for sale as pets, however, has probably been the largest impact that humans have had upon the species. The Red-vented Cockatoo is highly demanded as a cage-bird, as reflected in the price these birds can reach on the market (US$300 in Manilla, in 2006) (IUCN, 2012), and as such illegal trappers will remove any chicks from nests they come across  (Katala Foundation, 2013). 

Thankfully, things are being done to try and stop the decline of this species through the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program (PCCP). The PCCP has proposed protecting nests from poaching, restoring destroyed habitats, education and involvement in the community and conservation breeding for re-release as some of their conservation methods. 

Climate Change 1. - The Big Picture

Being perfectly honest, this is really just an overview; were I to address every impact that climate change has had upon birds, I would be here for a long, long time. Whilst I can and will focus on the finer points in my future posts, here I simply aim to provide a stepping stone. The topic of Climate Change is a long debated one, and the effect that our activities have had upon the climate is one of the reasons why many believe we're entering a new geological time; the Anthropocene.

What is Climate Change, and how do we know it is happening?
In short, Climate Change is a large-scale, global change in patterns of weather and temperature trends over time. As a result of shifting climate zone boundaries, climate change also results in a shift of biodiversity over time.

Athabasca Glacier in Canada is just one of the world's many retreating mountain glaciers that make it hard to deny that our planet is has been warming over the last century - by Maggie T on Flickr

Climate Change can be natural; the earth has experienced both cool periods where ice has been present over the poles, and warmer ice-free periods. Whilst the exact mechanisms for natural climate change are not fully understood, it is believed changes in the earth's orbit (Milankovitch Cycles) (British Geological Society) (Wikipedia, 2013) play a large role. This sort of climate change, however, takes place over thousands of years. Since the beginning of the 20th century global temperature has risen 0.8°C (1.4°F) (UK MetOffice) (US EPA) (Koronowski, 2013). This rapid change is above and beyond natural climate change (IPCC, 2007) and has been attributed to human activities; primarily an increase in atmospheric CO2 (from 280ppm before the industrial revolution (IPCC, 2007) to the present value of over 390ppm)(CO2 Now) through the burning of fossil fuels.

This rise in temperature has in turn caused a shift in global precipitation pattens (US EPA). Whilst there has been increased rain observed in the northern hemispheres mid-latitudes, other areas of the globe have suffered increasing drought  (UK MetOffice). Climate change has also brought with it a rapid retreat in mountain glaciers (Oerlemans et al, 1998) (Kaser et al, 2003) , a decline in sea ice and continental ice sheets, and a rise in sea level (Rockström et al, 2011).

Threatened by climate change and stronger, more frequent El Niño cycles; the critically endangered Waved Albatross (Phoebastria irrorata), a migratory sea-bird who's population is believed to have declined by up to 19% in the past 84 years (BirdLife, 2013) - image by Victor Burolla on Flickr

How does climate change impact upon birds?
There is compelling evidence that Climate Change has had a large impact on the behaviour, breeding patterns, breeding ranges (Araújo et al, 2005) and migration patterns of birds (Nature Canada). Earlier springs in northern hemisphere have been associated with an earlier arrival and breeding of birds, and in turn an earlier autumn and winter migration of juveniles (Crick, 2004).

For those birds that don't migrate to warmer climates, the harsher, colder winters may pose the threat of starvation and freezing as they require an increased energy expenditure for birds to keep warm (Crick, 2004). In turn, this could impact breeding success.

Other threats posed to birds, both migratory and non-migratory, include the loss of habitat and food (National Geographic, 2013). Whilst some areas of the world are becoming dryer and suffering from drought, other areas are becoming more 'hospitable'; in Alaska trees are now appearing on the formerly tree-less tundra, and deciduous trees are beginning to replace mountain conifers (O'Hara, 2011) . Whole ecosystems are changing rapidly, and populations of birds unable to adapt to these changes may decline rapidly.